Sind Luftfahrt-Biokraftstoffe völlig unrealistisch?

Zusammenfassung

In a bid to reduce its dependency on imported oil and tackle global warming, the EU has committed to raising the share of fuels from renewable sources in transport to 10% by 2020 – including biofuels, hydrogen and green electricity.

In the air transport sector, test flights have already proven that biofuels could become a viable alternative to kerosene. In 2009, the airline sector has committed to meet 10% of its overall fuel consumption with biofuels by 2017.

Concerned with warnings that increased agrifuel production could lead to mass deforestation and food shortages, the EU also made clear that only biofuels that meet strict sustainability criteria will be allowed on the market.

The EU Renewable Energy Directive, agreed by EU leaders in December 2008, obliges the bloc to ensure that biofuels offer at least 35% carbon emission savings compared to fossil fuels. The figure rises to 50% as of 2017 and 60% as of 2018 (EurActiv 05/12/08).

These criteria were put forward as a way to ensure that energy crops do not replace other land uses (so-called 'indirect land-use change').

However, truly "green" biofuels are not expected to hit the market on a sufficiently large commercial scale before 2015 at best.

And the concerns raised against biofuels have dissuaded the European Commission from making any predictions about the potential contribution of biofuels to the EU's renewable energy targets – let alone for the airline sector.

This has infuriated the airline industry, which described current government funding for biofuels as "peanuts".

Debatte

Airlines aim for 10% biofuels use by 2017

The international aviation industry is committed to achieving "carbon-neutral growth" by 2020, which would allow the sector to grow without increasing its carbon footprint.

In June 2009, the International Air Transport Association (IATA) backed the 2020 carbon-neutral growth target and pledged to improve fuel efficiency by an average of 1.5% per year.

Several airlines have conducted biofuel test flights, which began with a February 2008 Virgin Airlines flight where one engine used fuel made from coconuts and Brazilian babassu nuts. 

The IATA has set a target of ramping up biofuels use to 10% of all consumption by 2017, saying that they have the potential to reduce the industry's footprint by up to 80%. 

"But the industry can't achieve this alone," said IATA Director-General Giovanni Bisignani, calling on world governments to get serious about investing in aviation biofuels and describing current funding as "peanuts".

For US planemaker Boeing, biofuels will be essential to achieving the airline's pledge for carbon-neutral growth. "Without biofuels we cannot get there. It is a vital contribution," said Antonio De Palmas, Boeing's president for EU and NATO relations.

A drop-in replacement for kerosene

For the aviation sector, research into biofuels has centred on finding a blend that is compatible with aeroplanes. Part of the difficulty lies in selecting a type of fuel that can resist the extremely low temperatures encountered at high altitude.

Bill Glover, managing director for environmental strategy at Boeing, says dozens of samples of different types of fuel had to be tested before selecting one to use for a demonstration flight.

The test flight was conducted successfully in 2008 and was followed by others the following year, demonstrating that the technology is available now. "It is a drop-in solution for aviation, meaning that we don't need [to make] any change [to] the aircraft or engine to make them work. Typically, the flights operate with 50% biofuels and 50% fossil fuel," said De Palmas, the company's president for EU-NATO relations.

"In 2007, the R&D challenge was a central one. I think we can say now after more than three years that the product is there, the technology is there. Clearly we need more R&D to optimise the product to increase the energy coefficient of these biofuels, but the product is there," De Palmas said.

Scale issue

The big issue now for industry is whether biofuels can be deployed on a sufficiently large scale to make a difference to the airline sector's carbon emissions – without wrecking the environment.

UOP, a leading developer of refining processes, says first-generation biofuels such as ethanol must be seen as a ''stepping stone'' for the development of new, environmentally-friendly alternatives, such as fuel made from waste or "woody" materials (so-called second-generation biofuels). Other types of sustainable biofuels that are being explored include those made from algae (see EurActiv LinksDossier).

Carlos Cabrera, president and CEO of UOP, said in a 2007 interview with EurActiv that the capacity of biofuels to contribute to the fight against climate change will rely on the amounts that can be produced. ''That's the scale problem: the amount of oil that gets consumed and refined every day is greater than the potential of the existing agricultural sector to supply it."

The problem is that those amounts get even smaller when considering only biofuels that meet the EU's strict sustainability criteria (see below).

Boeing's Glover said that it will take time before the fuel industry increases its processing capacity. "What we can foresee is that within ten years, there will be certain airports with fuel tanks where this blend will be available," Glover said back in 2007. "When you fly to that airport, that's the fuel you get. When you fly to another airport, you might get a more conventional fuel."

The challenge is to get enough biomass to refine biofuels for aviation, adds De Palmas. "So the challenge is more commercial, it is more from a market perspective. And clearly, we don't know how much biomass will be available in – let's say – two years from now. That's the big question mark, that is the big variable that we have now and which is making airlines very nervous."

Environmental side-effects

But the biggest challenge to biofuels is the threat they pose to the environment. Concerns have been raised in particular that increased production would result in massive deforestation and have severe implications for food security, as energy crops replace other land uses (so-called 'indirect land-use change').

To address these issues, the EU has put in place strict sustainability criteria. The 2009 Renewable Energy Directive obliges the bloc to ensure that biofuels offer at least 35% carbon emission savings compared to fossil fuels. The figure rises to 50% as of 2017 and 60% as of 2018.

On deforestation, the European Commission proposed a voluntary certification scheme for biofuels in June 2010. The Commission proposal explains what industry, governments or NGOs need to do to be labelled sustainable. These include standards to be met both in the EU and third countries, as well as independent auditing of the whole of the scheme's production chain.

Only those biofuels that meet the conditions set out in the proposal will count towards the renewable energy targets that each of the EU's 27 member states must reach by 2020.

However, the certification scheme is only voluntary and does not take into account the complex issue of indirect land use change (ILUC).

In December 2010, the European Commission completed a two-year investigation into the issue. It recommended six months more of studies before announcing a new strategy in summer 2011 to complement existing measures to ensure sustainability of biofuels.

The EU executive said it will now consider four options, ranging from simply monitoring the situation to introducing new sustainability requirements or penalties for the least sustainable biofuels.

Meanwhile, environmental groups believe the EU's current green criteria are "weak" and cannot guarantee the sustainability of biofuels sold in Europe – regardless of whether they're used in air or road transport.

"All biofuels being tested by airline companies are using the same biofuels as being promoted in the car industry. Most of these are food crops and virtually all are worse for the climate than conventional oil," said Adrian Bebb, a campaigner at Friends of the Earth Europe.

European Commission cautious, focuses on R&D

Despite ongoing efforts on sustainability schemes, the European Commission remains sceptical that biofuels can make a significant contribution to the EU's objectives on renewable energy and greenhouse gas reduction.

"The Commission has at present no projections for biofuels in aviation by 2020," said Marlene Holzner, spokesperson for EU Energy Commissioner Günther Oettinger. "In general they are not expected to constitute a major share to the renewable energy targets for 2020," she told EurActiv in e-mailed comments.

"The achievement of these [renewable energy] targets for 2020 does not depend on developments on the use of biofuel for aviation," Holzner further stressed.

In the longer term, biofuels in aviation may play a more important role, the Commission believes. In its 2011 White Paper on transport, the European Commission foresees a 40% of "sustainable low carbon fuels" in aviation by 2050.

But for now, it considers them to still be in the research and development phase. To explore their potential, the EU executive is supporting further research. A contract was awarded to a project called SWAFEA – Sustainable Way for Alternative Fuels and Energy for Aviation. The 26-month study started in May 2009 with €5.1m of funding from the Commission and involving 19 partners from aviation and fuel industries, airlines, research and consultancies.

The aim is to develop a vision and road map for sustainable deployment of alternative fuels and energies in aviation. The final results are expected in the first half of 2011.

Incentives will be key

In the meantime, the aviation sector is pushing for more government support. How fast "green biofuels" will come to markets on a large scale will ultimately depend on tax rebates or other forms of subsidies, industry sources claim.

''The real reason why I think that it is taking so long is because quite frankly there are no incentives yet, there is not an economic return," said the UOP's Cabrera back in 2007. "People have to take resources from other places to invest in these technologies, for which the outcome is uncertain at this point in time. And the investments needed are very large. It is a difficult problem.''

But he believes government incentives can help: "If governments really want this to happen, we will need two or three times the level of investment than what we have today.''

As of 2012, the airline sector will start trading CO2 permits under the EU's Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS), in a bid to reduce global warming gases. One possibility would be to allow airlines to claim a percentage of the biofuels that they bought for their operations on a global scale to be credited under the EU ETS.

This is the solution supported by the airline sector as the most practical: instead of trying to calculate how much biofuels are actually consumed in each flight, air carriers could claim the amount that fuel suppliers put in the airport tanks and get a credit based on that amount

"The EU ETS has to be implemented in a way that allows airlines to claim credits for the use of biofuels," said Boeing's De Palmas. "The way it is currently designed is not right, so we need some specific methodology for aviation."

Putting infrastructure in place

The commercialisation of "green biofuels" in planes will not only require technological breakthroughs, it will also necessitate the development of a whole new infrastructure.

''Both the technologies and the logistics are still at a very early stage," said the UOP's Cabrera in the 2007 interview. "In the case of ligno-cellulosic waste, you would need to collect billions of leaves, so you need to have the infrastructure to collect all the agricultural waste, all the stock, all the grass that does not get used, etc., and bring it to some centre that processes it."

Four years later, UOP says technologies have developed to the extent that they are now ready for deployment on a commercial-scale.

"Today we expect that 13 million hectares per year of jatropha will be cultivated by 2015, which could produce roughly 250,000 barrels per day of biofuels and camelina has the potential to generate roughly 60,000 barrels per day of biofuels by 2015," said Jim Rekoske, head of biofuel technology at UOP.

In June 2011, ASTM International, a recognised standards body, is expected to approve the use of sustainable biofuels for regularly scheduled commercial flights. "We believe that this approval combined with the growing demand for alternative solutions from global airlines and militaries, will drive investment in production capacity and could lead to large scale production of aviation biofuels in the next 2 to 3 years," Rekoske said.

Other solutions to cleaner flights

Meanwhile, the airline industry explores other promising ways to reduce the sector's carbon footprint. These include smarter and more efficient air traffic control system that produces shorter, faster and safer flights.

To help the sector reduce its impacts, the International Air Transport Association (IATA) wants nations to modernise traffic management, give it unlimited access to carbon offsets to meet its emissions reduction goals, and regulate and impose price ceilings on carbon markets.

Stellungnahmen

The International Air Transport Association (IATA) has pledged to achieve carbon neutral growth by 2020 and committed to meet 10% of its overall fuel consumption with sustainable biofuels by 2017 as a way of reducing its carbon emissions.

"Although complete solutions are not available today, building blocks, such as new materials and designs, alternative fuels, solar power and hydrogen fuel cells already exist," the IATA said.

According to the airline association, biofuels derived from biomass such as algae, jatropha and camelina "can reduce their carbon footprint 80% over their full lifecycle". If commercial aviation was using 6% biofuels by 2020, this would reduce its carbon footprint by 5%, IATA argues.

For Antonio De Palmas, president for EU and NATO relations at US planemaker Boeing, biofuels will be essential to meet the sector's pledge for carbon-neutral growth. "Without biofuels we cannot get there. It is a vital contribution," he told EurActiv in an interview. "New aircrafts, new engines and improved air traffic management will of course also play a role, but biofuels will play a significant part," he said.

For Boeing, the priority now is commercialisation and getting sufficient amounts of biomass to refine for the airline sector. Currently, most of the biomass is used for road transport, meaning competition is very tough. "Compared to road transport fuels, we are really really small, which means that we have less attention from the big fuel suppliers from a market point of view," De Palmas declared.

He said this is where policymakers can come in – "to make sure we are not disadvantaged at least compared to other sectors when it comes to getting the right amount of biomass to refine biofuels".

But the European Commission appears to be sceptical about aviation biofuels at this stage. "The Commission has at present no projections for biofuels in aviation by 2020," said Marlene Holzner, spokesperson for EU Energy Commissioner Günther Oettinger. "In general they are not expected to constitute a major share to the renewable energy targets for 2020," she told EurActiv in e-mailed comments. 

"The achievement of these [renewable energy] targets for 2020 does not depend on developments on the use of biofuel for aviation," Holzner further stressed.

However, the Commission's transport department sounds a more positive note on biofuels. Commenting on a 2050 industry-led strategy for research in aviation, presented in March, EU Transport Commissioner Siim Kallas said: "Aviation needs new green technologies and biofuels to reduce its impact on the environment." And a 2011 White Paper on Transport, published by Kallas's services, predicts that low-carbon fuels in aviation will reach 40% by 2050.

Moreover, a January 2011 report on future transport fuels, put together by a group of European experts mandated by the European Commission, said aviation biofuels should receive greater attention from policymakers. "Constraints on biofuel availability might require measures to prioritise the supply to the sectors most in need of high-energy density fuel," the report said, citing aviation and long-distance road transport among these.

Claudio Bertelli, Director of Biofuel Technology Sales at Honeywell’s UOP, deplored the Commission's lack of support for second-generation biofuels, which are typically used in aviation. "Regrettably, to date EU policies seem to build on the legacy of first-generation biofuels, e.g. by using them as a reference. This discourages investment in new industrial scale advanced biofuel plants."

European aircraft manufacturer Airbus also believes biofuels can make a difference. In collaboration with oil major Shell and engine manufacturer Rolls-Royce, Airbus performed a series of test flights in 2008, which utilised gas-to-liquid (GTL) kerosene. In the first half of 2011, Airbus is planning to launch the world's first passenger biofuel flights using a biofuel blend made from 50% hydro-processed esters and fatty acids.

The European planemaker is also actively involved in SWAFEA, a project led by the European Commission to research and develop sustainable alternative fuels in aviation.

The European Biofuels Technology Platform, a research group bringing together industry, academia and civil society, underlines the variety of feedstocks available for aviation biofuels. The group rules out hydrogen, arguing it would be too costly to adapt for aviation but points to fuels synthesised from gas (GTL), coal (CTL) and biomass as "the only realistic alternative for commercial air transport".

Adrian Bebb, who follows food and agriculture issues for Friends of the Earth Europe, an environmental NGO, does not believe biofuels can play a role in reducing emissions in the transport sector. "There is currently no evidence that the large scale use of biofuels reduce greenhouse gases. On the contrary, for biofuels used in road transport research shows that the EU's 10% target will increase emissions by up to 167%."

"With the air industry joining in then the situation will worsen dramatically and threaten forests in the tropics, increase land grabbing in places like Africa and make climate change worse." For him, "the best way to reduce carbon emissions is to reduce air travel, especially intra-EU flights."

"With the current biofuels available we see no potential for the aviation sector to reduce its carbon footprint," he said, stressing the need to enforce stringent sustainability criteria. 

Antonio De Palmas, Boeing president for EU and NATO relations, underlined the need for a global approach when it comes to biofuels sustainability criteria. "We need harmonised standards that can be enforced across the world. With aviation biofuels, the biggest risk is to have a patchwork type of standard that would certainly inhibit the development of an aviation biofuels market in Europe and worldwide. If an airline has different standards for biofuels in Europe than in Australia or the US, then it cannot work."

Bill Hemmings, a campaigner at Transport & Environment (T&E), a green NGO, says environmentally-friendly biofuels are nowhere near commercial-scale production. "The aviation industry is making a lot of noise about biofuels but their availability in sufficient commercial quantities is many many years away. In the meantime, 14 years of UN talks on curbing aviation emissions through global measures have achieved nothing and are currently stalled."

In addition, work to develop efficiency standards for new aircraft is dogged by industry footdragging, Hemmings adds, although efficiency "is exactly where the focus needs to be". "The fuel efficiency of new jets has hardly improved in 20 years, incredibly they are no more efficient than the propellor-engined planes of the 1950s."

On the sustainability issue, Hemmings says most biofuels available now cause more emissions than the fossil fuels they are supposed to replace, notably when indirect land use change (ILUC) is taken into account.

"The industry needs to show that its biofuel plans reduce overall CO2 emissions, don't cause other environmental and social problems and satisfy the same sustainability criteria as other biofuels. Currently aviation biofuels are not subject to any sustainability criteria. That must be addressed and indirect land use change factored in. In the meantime biofuels must not serve as a smokescreen to obscure the fact that urgent work is needed today to arrest aviation's growing climate footprint," he said.

Zeitplan

• March 2007: EU sets target to meet 10% of its transport fuel needs with biofuels by 2020. Target is subsequently broadened to include biofuels alongside other renewable energies, such as electricity produced from renewable sources like wind and solar.
• 6 April 2009: EU wraps up climate and energy policy for 2020, including a new directive on renewable energy that sets criteria for sustainable use of biofuels.
• 10 June 2010: Commission sets out voluntary certification scheme for biofuels.
• 5 Dec. 2010: Deadline for all EU countries to comply with new Renewables Directive. Greenhouse gas savings from biofuels to reach minimum 35% compared with fossil fuels.
• 28 Jan. 2011: Commission's 2011 transport White Paper sets target for "low-carbon sustainable fuels" in aviation to reach 40% by 2050.
• First half 2011: EU-backed SWAFEA study to investigate feasibility and impact of alternative fuels in aviation.
• Summer 2011: Commission strategy to tackle unwanted side-effects of biofuels production.
• 1 Jan. 2012: Aviation sector starts trading CO2 credits under EU Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS).
• 2012: EU countries submit first report on national measures taken to respect sustainability criteria for biofuels.
• By Dec. 2014: Commission review of greenhouse gas emission saving thresholds for biofuels, taking available technologies into account. 
• 2017: Greenhouse gas savings from biofuels to reach minimum 50%.
• 2017: Airline sector target to meet 10% of its fuel needs with sustainable biofuels.
• 2018: Greenhouse gas savings from biofuels to reach minimum 60%. 
• 2018: Commission renewable energy roadmap for post-2020 period. 
• 2020: Transport sector mandated to source 10% of its energy needs from renewable energies, including sustainable biofuels and others.
• By 2050: Low-carbon sustainable fuels in aviation to reach 40%.

Externe Links

European Union

• European Commission:Air transport: Biofuels
• European Commission:Air transport: Environment
• European Commission:Biofuels and other renewable energy in the transport sector
• European Commission:2011 progress report on renewable energies(31 Jan. 2011) [FR] [FR] [DE]
• European Commission:Evaluation of the use of biofuels and other renewable fuels in transport(31 Jan. 2011)
• European Commission:Report of the European expert group on future transport fuels(Jan. 2011)
• European Commission:European Industrial Initiative on bioenergy
• Sustainable Way for Alternative Fuels and Energy for Aviation (SWAFA)
• SWAFEA:State of the Art on Alternative Fuels in Aviation

International Organisations

• International Energy Agency (IEA):Global Perspectives for Lignocellulosic Ethanol(13 Oct. 2010)

Business & Industry

• International Air Transport Association (IATA):Pathway to carbon-neutral growth in 2020
• International Air Transport Association (IATA):Alternative Fuels
• International Air Transport Association (IATA):Environment
• Enviro.Aero:Beginners guide to aviation biofuels
• European biofuels technology platform:Biofuels for air travel
• Masdar Institute:First Sustainability Assessment for Biofuels Production from an Integrated Seawater Agriculture System
• Boeing:Sustainable biofuels
• Boeing:Video: Boeing 747-8 to fly historic biofuel flight to Paris(June 2011)
• Sustainable Aviation Fuel Users Group
• UOP:Green Jet Fuel
• Airbus:Alternative fuels

NGOs and Think-Tanks

• Transport & Environment (T&E):Aviation
• Friends of the Earth Europe (FoEE):European agrofuels campaign

Press articles

• Wired:Aviation biofuels: More hype than hope?

Other

• Wikipedia:Aviation biofuels