Robert Steenland Archives

Italy was a founding member of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1952, which paved the way for the EU. It joined the Schengen in 1997 and eurozone in 1999, despite not meeting the euro convergence criteria, and its economic performance has remained a source of concern.

Sweden joined the EU only in 1995 and a year later also became part of the Schengen area. However, it is one of the six EU countries that are not part of NATO and it also refuses to join the eurozone, following a referendum in 2003, in which people voted against adopting the common currency. This has resulted in a de-facto opt-out.

Portugal joined the EU, together with its neighbour Spain, in 1986, and has been part of the Schengen (1995) and eurozone (1999) areas since their creation.

Spain joined the EU in 1986, and has since then subscribed to each EU treaty, including ratifying in referendum of the Constitutional Treaty in 2005. With a population of circa 46,5 million people, it is the 4th largest of the EU, representing 10.4% of all EU citizens (after Brexit).

Austria joined the EU only in 1995, having traditionally been a neutral country, but has been part of the eurozone (1999) and Schengen (1997) areas since their inception.

The case needs to be made for a back-up security order in Europe - guaranteed by Europe, alas without the US, writes Robert Steenland.